Differing Attitudes Towards the Cannabis Infringement Notice Scheme as a Function of Career Aspirations and Dispositional Variables

..................................................................................................................... 2 THESIS INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 3 Western Australian Cannabis Laws ....................................................................... 4 Attitude Studies ..................................................................................................... 6 Dispositions ........................................................................................................... 8 Attitudes ................................................................................................................ 9 Review of Career Types, Attitudes and Dispositions ....... .' .................................. 10 Dispositional Variables as used in the Current Study ......................................... 16 Research related to Drug Use Strategies and Dispositions ................................. 17 Research Questions ............................................................................................. 21 METHOD ........................................................................................................................ 22 Study Design ....................................................................................................... 22 Participants .......................................................................................................... 22 Procedure ............................................................................................................. 23 Materials .............................................................................................................. 23 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 25 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................ 27 Characteristics of San1ple .................................................................................... 27 Table 1. Characteristics of Sample ..................................................................... 27 Multiple Regression ............................................................................................. 28 Table 2.1 Correlations; ........................................................................................ 29 Table 2.2 Predictors of Attitudes to CIN scheme ................................................ 30 ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME VI T-tests ............................................................................................................................. 31 Table 3.1 Mean scores for Attitudes towards the CIN Scheme ........................... 31 Table 3.2 Mean scores for TMQ .......................................................................... 31 Table 3.3 Mean scores for NCS ........................................................................... 31 Futiher Analysis .............................................................................................................. 32 Principal Factor Analysis ................................................................................................ 32 Table 4.1 Factor Loadings for Principal Factor Analysis .................................. 34 Multiple Regression Analyses on Underlying Factors .................................................... 36 Table 4.2 Legal Status ofCannabis ..................................................................... 36 Table 4.3 Effects ofCIN scheme on the Cannabis Market .................................. 37 Table 4.4 Approval of Policing Dubious Hydroponic Equipment Sellers ............................................................. 3 8 Table 4.5 Likelihood of Being Caught in Possession ofCannabisfor Personal Use .............................................................. 39 Table 4.6 Appropriateness of the CIN Laws ........................................................ 40 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................. 41 Limitations ........................................................................................................... 51 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 52 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 55 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 62 Appendix A. Participant Information Letter ...................................................... 62 Appendix B. Demographics Questionnaire ........................................................ 63 Appendix C. Temperance Mentality Questionnaire ............................................ 64 Appendix D. Needfor Closure Survey ................................................................ 68 Appendix E. Attitudes towards the CIN scheme Questionnaire .......................... 70 Running head: ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 1 Differing Attitudes Towards the Cmmabis Infringement Notice Scheme as a Function of Career Aspirations and Dispositional Variables Mark Wallace BA (Psychology) School ofPsychology and Social Science ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 2 Abstract This paper investigated the predictive relationship between individuals' career aspirations, dispositional variables such as temperance mentality and need for closure, and recent cannabis use, and attitudes towards the Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) scheme in Western Australia; and also examined if differences in attitudes towards CIN scheme existed between different career aspiration groups. The CIN scheme, a harm reduction strategy, came into effect on 22 March 2004 (Lenton, 2004). Harm reduction is one of three strategies encompassed by the policy of harm minimisation, which underpins Australia's approach to drugs and drug related harm (Ryder, Walker, & Salmon, 2006). Studies investigating attitudes towards harm minimisation have been conducted in Australia and internationally (e.g. Goddard and colleagues, 2002, 2003; Quick, 2007) and found that harm minimisation education was a key factor in changing people's attitudes towards harm minimisation strategies. It was unknown if individuals' choice of career could also influence these attitudes. A total of 350 students from Edith Cowan University participated in this study. After data screening, a usable sample (n = 198) was retained for analysis. A multiple regression analysis indicated that temperance mentality and recent cannabis use were significant predictors of attitudes towards the CIN scheme. At-test was conducted to investigate differences between career choice on attitudes towards the CIN scheme mean scores; no significant difference was found in this particular sample. The mean scores for attitudes towards the CIN scheme clustered around the neutral mark, indicating that the participants were either ignorant of, or ambivalent towards, the CIN scheme. Future studies among the wider Western Australian community are wan-anted, and may be beneficial in relation to detetmining what interventions might produce more favourable attitudes towards harm minimisation strategies in general.This paper investigated the predictive relationship between individuals' career aspirations, dispositional variables such as temperance mentality and need for closure, and recent cannabis use, and attitudes towards the Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) scheme in Western Australia; and also examined if differences in attitudes towards CIN scheme existed between different career aspiration groups. The CIN scheme, a harm reduction strategy, came into effect on 22 March 2004 (Lenton, 2004). Harm reduction is one of three strategies encompassed by the policy of harm minimisation, which underpins Australia's approach to drugs and drug related harm (Ryder, Walker, & Salmon, 2006). Studies investigating attitudes towards harm minimisation have been conducted in Australia and internationally (e.g. Goddard and colleagues, 2002, 2003; Quick, 2007) and found that harm minimisation education was a key factor in changing people's attitudes towards harm minimisation strategies. It was unknown if individuals' choice of career could also influence these attitudes. A total of 350 students from Edith Cowan University participated in this study. After data screening, a usable sample (n = 198) was retained for analysis. A multiple regression analysis indicated that temperance mentality and recent cannabis use were significant predictors of attitudes towards the CIN scheme. At-test was conducted to investigate differences between career choice on attitudes towards the CIN scheme mean scores; no significant difference was found in this particular sample. The mean scores for attitudes towards the CIN scheme clustered around the neutral mark, indicating that the participants were either ignorant of, or ambivalent towards, the CIN scheme. Future studies among the wider Western Australian community are wan-anted, and may be beneficial in relation to detetmining what interventions might produce more favourable attitudes towards harm minimisation strategies in general. Author: Mark Wallace Supervisor: Dr. David Ryder Submitted: October 2010 ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 3 Differing Attitudes Towards the Cannabis Infringement Notice Scheme as a Function of Career Aspirations and Dispositional Variables The use of cannabis in Australia was relatively uncommon until the 1960s (Ryder, Walker, & Salmon, 2006). There were, however, some exceptions. According to Manderson (1993) cannabis was used for medicinal purposes in the 19th century and to a lesser extent in the 20th century; but in the later part of the century the nature and extent of cannabis use changed significantly. In the 1960s the use of cannabis became more widespread, with usage increasing more as a matter of personal choice rather than for medicinal purposes (McDonald, Moore, Norberry, Wardlaw, & Ballenden, 1994). Coinciding with the increasing use of cmmabis carne criminal penalties for those using this drug (McDonald et al., 1994). Criminal penalties due to cmmabis use can ultimately affect ones prospects of attaining employment, rental accommodation, and the ability to travel overseas (Ryder et al., 2006). There has been much discussion in relation to the appropriateness of penalties for minor cannabis offences, which include possession of small amounts of cannabis for personal use (Lenton & Ovenden, 1996). Research in Australia indicated that there is considerable support for the decrirninalisation of such minor cam1abis offences (e.g., Lenton & Ovenden, 1996; Fetherston & Lenton, 2005). Govermnents, however, despite often accommodating public opinion, are cautious when it comes to the issue of illicit drug policy (Lenton & Oven den, 1994). According to Lenton (2004), "politics is about perceptions" (p. 223): Curr-ently in Western Australia, a system of "civil sanctions for minor cmmabis offences" prevails, and despite the available evidence that this system has been effective in achieving its aims (Drug & Alcohol Office, 2007), and that cmmabis use is declining (Fetherston & Lenton, 2007), the cunent state Liberal government has indicated that it intends to reintroduce criminal penalties for the cultivation and possession of small amounts of cmmabis (Lenton & Allsop, 2010), aiming to send a message that it intends to get "tough on drugs". ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 4 Although the political debate regarding the cannabis laws in Westem Australia is beyond the scope of this paper, it is interesting to note the rationalism, or lack thereof, at the time of the proposed introduction of the CCA (2003); sensationalist comments from the then opposition Liberal Party demonstrated the tone of the debate. For example, one Liberal Party member suggested that the new bill was going to stupefy children by allowing them to grow cannabis and sell it at school thus negating the need for gaining meaningful employment (Parliament, 2003). Further, according to a report in Perth's Sunday Times, the then prime minister, Jolm Howard, entered the debate urging the Westem Australian govemrnent to revise the new laws (Lenton & Allsop, 201 0). The purpose of this paper is to review attitudes towards cannabis law reform, specifically the CIN scheme ofWestem Australia, and to examine the extent to which attitudes are predicted by career aspirations, dispositional variables and personal use of cannabis. The dispositional predictor variables are "temperance mentality" and "need for closure". This paper will also examine how one's dispositions may be forged as a result of their career aspirations by reviewing relevant literature Western Australian Cannabis Laws Westem Australia became the fourth jurisdiction, following South Australia (1987), the Australian Capital Territory (1992) and the Northem Territory (1996), to introduce civil penalties for minor cannabis offences (Sutton & Hawks, 2005). The Cannabis Control Act (2003), which was passed though the Westem Australian Parliament on23rd September of that year, allows for infringement notices to be issued for certain minor cannabis offences; attempts to regulate the sale of cannabis smoking implements; and amends the 1981 Misuse of Drugs Act (CCA, 2003). The Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) scheme, as it has become known, carne into effect on the 22nd March 2004 (Lenton, 2004). The introduction of ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 5 the CIN scheme saw minor cannabis offences decriminalised, that is, they incurred civil rather than criminal penalties (Lenton, 2004). Under the CIN scheme, an individual can be served with a fine of up to $200 if he or she is found to be in possession of used smoking equipment; up to 30 grams of cannabis; or two non-hydroponic plants. Individuals issued with a fine, also refened to as a Cam1abis Infringement Notice, must expiate this by paying the fine within28 days or can opt to complete a ca1mabis education session within the same period (CCA, 2003). Individuals who receive more than two CINs over a period of three years are obliged to attend the cannabis education session or face a criminal charge (CCA, 2003). In relation to "cam1abis-smoking paraphemalia", an individual who operates an outlet where these items are sold must ensure that an adequate waming notice indicating the adverse effects of cannabis use is clearly visible to patrons of that particular outlet. Similarly, the retailer must make adequate education materials available to any individual purchasing cannabis smoking equipment (CCA, 2003). The penalties for failing to implement these regulations include fines of $1000 for individuals and $5000 for a body corporate. Further, knowingly selling cannabis-smoking paraphemalia from a retail outlet to minors attracts fines of $5000 for the individual and $25,000 for a body corporate (CCA, 2003). According to Prior et al. (2002) the intended purpose of the CCA (2003) was to encourage individuals with cam1abis-related problems to seek help; increase knowledge and awareness of the hanns (health and social) related to catmabis use; prevent individuals incurring adverse social and economic costs arising from convictions for minor cmmabis related offences; reduce prosecution costs incmTed by law enforcement organisations and the courts related to minor cannabis offences, and enable the police to concentrate their efforts on the detection and prosecution of those engaged in the commercial cultivation and supply of cannabis. ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 6 Some cannabis-related offences are excluded from the CIN scheme and, consequently, continue to attract criminal charges. These include possession of cannabis resin (hashish) and cannabis oil; cultivation of hydroponic plants and knowingly selling or supplying equipment, which can be used to cultivate hydroponic plants; and attempting to flout the intention of the scheme by growing plants and supplying cannabis to others (CCA, 2003). Attitude Studies Attitudinal studies relating to cannabis laws conducted over the last two decades (e.g., Bowman & Sanson-Fisher, 1994; Lenton & Ovenden, 1996; Fetherston & Lenton, 2005) have indicated that a substantial proportion of the Australian public considered criminal sanctions inappropriate for minor cannabis offences (Banatt, Chanteloup, Lenton & Marsh, 2005). Bowman and Sanson-Fisher (1994) conducted an Australia-wide random telephone survey to gauge public perceptions of cannabis, in pmiicular the public's attitudes towards the laws relating to cam1abis use, possession and cultivation, and associated penalties. From the responding sample (n = 1608), 7 5% believed that possession of cannabis for personal use, growing cannabis for personal use, and using cannabis should not be criminal offences (Bowman & Sanson-Fisher, 1994). Fmiher, between 52% and 55% of respondents indicated that cultivating and possessing cannabis for personal use, and using and possessing implements for cam1abis use should be legal (Bowman & Sanson-Fisher, 1994). More recent surveys, however, indicated that suppmi for the legalisation of cannabis for personal has declined. For example, findings from the 2004 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS) indicated that 27% of those surveyed, supported the legalisation of cannabis for personal use, whereas the findings from the 2007 NDSHS indicated a decline in support (21.2%) for legalising personal use of cam1abis (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2008). ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 7 Fetherston and Lenton (2007) conducted a study into the effects of the Westem Australian CIN scheme on public attitudes towards cmmabis laws, knowledge of, and personal use of cannabis. This study compared data from preand post-cannabis legislative change. Findings from phase two of the study, post-legislative change, indicated that after the laws were explained to participants, approximately 56% of respondents agreed that the strictness of the laws was appropriate, whereas 70% ofthe pre-change respondents indicated that the pre-legislative change laws were about right (Fetherston & Lenton, 2007). Fmihermore, 29% respondents in the post-change survey believed that the new laws were too lenient, compared to 19% of pre-change respondents (Fetherston & Lenton, 2007). Other findings from the survey indicated that there was a decline in cannabis use following the introduction of the CIN scheme. In fact, results from the 2007 NDSHS indicated that there has been a significant decrease in recent cannabis use (past 12 months), dropping to 9.1% nationwide; it's lowest level since 1992 (AIHW, 2008). Although it is not suggested that the introduction of the CIN scheme was a causal factor in reducing cannabis use in Westem Australia, it does appear that these findings run contrary to suggestions by some public commentators and politicians that the introduction of the CIN scheme would convey the message that cam1abis use may be viewed as acceptable (Fetherston & Lenton, 2007). Despite the research indicating that cannabis use was declining (e.g., AIHW, 2008; Fetherston & Lenton, 2005), and that the CIN scheme was proving to be cost effective, saving an estimated $2.3 million in court related costs (Drug and Alcohol Office, 2007), editorial comments from the West Australian newspaper suggested, falsely, that cannabis use was not only increasing, but was also leading to increased adverse outcomes due to the introduction of Westem Australia's "soft cannabis laws" (Lenton & Allsop, 2010). Indeed, these comments were consistently being backed up by the spokesperson, a senior psychiatrist, from the state branch of the Australian Medical Association (Lenton & Allsop, 2010). In contrast, the Drug ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 8 and Alcohol Office (2007) statutory review of the CCA (2003), declared that, based on the information relating to trends in cannabis use, there was no evidence to indicate that the cannabis law reforms had resulted in any adverse impact on the decline in cannabis use in W estem Australia. While the above research findings provided an insight into a section of public attitudes towards the Westem Australian cannabis laws, they do not take into account the effects of participants' career choice, their dispositions, or their personal use of cam1abis on their attitudes towards the CIN scheme. The importance of these factors should not be discounted when conducting attitude studies, as will be demonstrated throughout this paper. Throughout the literature reviewed, the terms dispositions and attitudes were used without any clear distinctions being made between the two. Both terms are used in this paper in the same context in which they were used in the reviewed literature. Dispositions According to Allport (1966), dispositions have neurodynamic bases, which have "more than a nominal existence" (p. 1) and have the capacity to influence specific attitudes or behaviours. Funder (1991) suggested that dispositions can be influenced by one's interaction with his or her environment and as such may be leamed. Moreover, if one considers that dispositions may be attributed to the individual's genetic makeup (Scarr & McCartney, 1983), but can also be a product of one's social environment, it may follow that individuals in similar environments, or two people with identical genes (e.g., twins), could often have dissimilar dispositions (Funder, 1991). Individuals' dispositions may be affected by various factors. Haley and Sidanius (2005) argued that institutional socialisation might affect individuals' dispositions. Institutional socialisation occurs when a person's attitudes and dispositions are influenced by factors in their work environment, such as organisationmles, incentives, and peer pressures (Haley & ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 9 Sidanius, 2005). Dispositions, such as anti-egalitarianism or authoritarianism, (van Laar, Sidanius, Rabinowitz, & Sinclair, 1999) might reflect differences in attitudes among individuals and I or organisations compared to those such as conscientiousness and egalitarianism (Funder, 1991; van Laar et al., 1999; Haley & Sidanius, 2005). Attitudes Attitudes can provide an insight into the individual's needs, motivations and evaluations of issues such as prejudice, sexuality and morality and, other sociopolitical ideals. Attitudes, like dispositions, are also susceptible to change (Perloff, 2003). Strong support for attitudinal change within individuals was found when issues are of high personal relevance, and in particular when founded on political or moral grounds (Petty, Tormala, Hawkins and Wegener, 2001). According to Perloff (2003), understanding attitudes is essential for comprehending the person in relation to their social world. Attitudes provide information regarding individuals' likes and dislikes, in addition to their perspective on the world (Zimbardo & Lieppe, 1991). Attitude studies are therefore necessary to gain greater comprehension of behaviours, or changes in behaviours, within the social world, including factors such as group norms, and social or political policies (Cohen, O'Connor, & Blackmore, 2002). Further, Palmer and Short (2000) suggested that attitudes held by the public might be influential in relation to the formation of sociopolitical policies. Dmg policies fall into this category. Australia's illicit dmg policies have evolved throughout the years, changing from punitive approaches to more health-focused approaches (MCDS, 2004). These changes in policies may be a reflection of the wider community's attitudes towards dmg use, that is, adopting a medical, health-focused approach to dmg use and addiction itself, hence the CIN scheme in Western Australia, and similar policies in other states and tenitories. The following ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 10 literature review provides an insight into how individuals' attitudes are influenced by their dispositions and career choices. Review of Career Types, Attitudes and Dispositions Haley and Sidanius (2005) used social dominance (SD) theory and vocational choice theory to examine the associations between the types of institution an individual works for on the one hand, and the attitudes and dispositional characteristics displayed by the individual, on the other. Social dominance theory suggests that human social systems are inclined towards group-based social hierarchies whereby dominant groups, for example, wealthy or ethnically dominant groups, tend to acquire and enjoy higher levels of social status including, better education, health and affluence. In contrast, minority or subordinate groups such as African Americans in the US or Indigenous groups are subject to higher rates of incarceration and poorer education (Sidanius, van Laar, Levin, & Sinclair, 2003). Indigenous Australians, for example, experience much higher rates of contact with the criminal justice system than non-Indigenous Australians. The data available on police proceedings against alleged perpetrators of crime suggest an offending rate of 1 in 10 for Indigenous Australians, compared to 1 in 79 for the non-indigenous population (Wundersitz, 2010). The main risk factors associated with offending by Indigenous people include alcohol abuse, illicit drug use, early childhood experience of domestic violence and abuse, lack of education, low socioeconomic status, lack of employment, sub standard accommodation, physical and mental health issues, 'and lack of access to adequate services (Wundersitz, 201 0). According to Haley and Sidanius (2005), social dominance theorists identified two types of institutions, hierarchy-enhancing (HE) and hierarchy-attenuating (HA). Hierarchyenhancing institutions are those which lend themselves to the creation and maintenance of group-based social hierarchies by making greater positive social allowances for dominant groups (white, wealthy affluent groups) rather than for subordinate groups (Indigenous or ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 11 ethnic minorities), whereas hierarchy-attenuating organisations are inclined towards the principle of equal rights and the empowerment of minority groups. Sidanius and Pratto (1999) argued that these social systems are predisposed to organise themselves along some continuum of group-based inequality especially when considering the historical record of human social structures. The criminal justice system is an example of an HE institution. While individual members of this system may hold HA positions, such as counsellors and social workers, this organisation can still be considered an HE institution because its overall effect is the maintenance of dominant group-based hierarchies; this is particularly noticeable in societies which purport to hold democratic legitimising ideologies such as "equal justice for all" (Sidanius et al., 2003). An example of the HE nature of the criminal justice system is provided by Sidanius and Pratto (1999) who demonstrated that African-Americans and members of various other minority groups around the world receive more severe negative sanctions (e.g., prison sentences) and are over-represented in the prison system than their more dominant counterpmis. This is reflected in Australia where, currently, Indigenous Australians account for 25.2% of Australia's total prison population despite comprising approximately 2.5% of the population (Select Committee, 2010). This is an increase from 20% of the total prison population since 1999 (Select Committee, 2010). The increase in Indigenous incarceration rates might be partially explained by the overall trend towards stricter sentencing. In Australia, elections fought on law and order issues, particularly at state level, have seen the introduction of mandatory sentencing, zero tolerance policing, and strengthening of other criminal justice policies. These policies are more likely to impact on Indigenous offenders who, propmiionately, have more contact with the criminal justice system (Select Committee, 2010). ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 12 Hierarchy attenuating institutions, on the other hand, include civil rights groups such as Amnesty International, civil libertarian groups and social welfare groups, and those organisations dedicated to the empowem1ent of minority or oppressed members of society (Haley & Sidanius, 2005). Hierarchy attenuating organisations tend to ameliorate group-based social hierarchy by acting to defend social minorities and thus attempting to create higher levels of social equality (Sidanius et al., 2003). Psychology, in general, is one example of an HA profession. The Australian Psychological Society Code of Ethics (2007), General Principle A, explicitly states that: Psychologists demonstrate their respect for people by acknowledging their legal rights and moral rights, their dignity and right to participate in decisions affecting their lives. They recognise the importance of people's privacy and confidentiality, and physical and personal integrity, and recognise the power they hold over people when practising as psychologists. They have a high regard for the diversity and uniqueness of people and their right to linguistically and culturally appropriate services. Psychologists acknowledge people's right to be treated fairly without discrimination or favouritism, and they endeavour to ensure that all people have reasonable and fair access to psychologi9al services and share in the benefits that the practice of psychology can offer. (p. 11 ). Holland (1996) argued that individuals tend to gravitate towards studies and occupations that suit their values or dispositions, and suggested that high job satisfaction is determined by person-environment (P-E) congmence. Furthennore, research on SD theory indicated that there is a "P-E fit" with respect to sociopolitical attitudes, suggesting that for HE and HA organisations to function most effectively, they should be staffed with individuals who have dispositions that are congment with the career roles they have to perfmm (Sidanius, Liu, ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 13 Pratto, & Shaw, 1994). It is also argued that this P-E fit can even be found between university students and the areas of study they pursue (e.g., Sidanius, Pratto, Martin, & Stallworth, 1991; van Laar et al., 1999). For example, students pursuing degrees that would eventually lead to HE careers, in organisations such as the Criminal Justice System, held relatively anti-egalitarian views compared to those aspiring to HA careers such as social sciences or humanities (Haley & Sidanius, 2005). Dambrun, Guimond and Duarte (2002) further explored this idea in a study, which examined the impact of HE versus HA university majors on racial perceptions and stereotyping, social domination orientation, and perceived social norms in relation to tolerance. Using law students (HE) and psychology students (HA) as participants, their findings indicated that psychology students had lower levels of anti-Arab stereotyping and social dominance orientation, as well as higher levels of support for tolerance norms, than law students; and law students reported that individuals in their course were generally less tolerant than the psychology course counterpatis, as reported by the psychology students (Dambrun et al., 2002). According to SD theory, the process by which individuals seek out valuecongruent organisations, or study pathways, is known as self-selection (Haley & Sidanius, 2005). Evidence of self-selection amongst university students was found in a number of studies. For example, Si~anius, Pratto, Sinclair, and van Laar (1996) investigated the perceived attractiveness of HE and HA careers using a sample of students from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Eight different career tracks were investigated, four of which were classified as HA careers and four classified as HE careers. The HA careers included, public defender, civil rights lawyer, social worker, and human rights advocate, whereas those classified as HE careers included, criminal prosecutor, police officer, FBI agent, and business executive. The perceived attractiveness of each career was measured ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 14 using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 'not attractive at all' to 'very attractive'. The findings indicated that there was a positive, albeit small, and significant correlation (r = .19, p < . 001 ), between the perceived attractiveness of HE careers and social dominance orientation, that is, the desire to establish and maintain group-based social hierarchies. The perceived attractiveness of HA careers, however, was found to be negatively cmrelated with social dominance orientation, r = -.39,p < .001 (Sidanius et al., 1996). Similarly, van Laar et al. (1999), conducted a study using a large sample of students (n = 5655) from the University of Texas to investigate the effect of students majoring in either HA or HE courses on anti-egalitarian beliefs (e.g., classical racism). Hierarchy-attenuating majors were defined as those, which were related to the study of low-status or less empowered social groups. Examples of HA majors included, special education, social workers, and African and Mexican studies. Hierarchy-enhancing majors were defined as those, which identified with, and were directed towards careers in dominant social groups, including business, finance, and marketing. Majors, which could not be easily classified, were labeled as "inte1mediate". The results from this study revealed that students who chose HE majors, displayed significantly higher levels of anti-egalitarianism than the intermediates, t (5391) = 5.42,p < .0001, whereas students in HA majors had significantly lower levels of anti-egalitarianism than the intermediates, t (5931) = -2.26,p < .02 (van Laar et al., 1999). Replicating the above studies, Sidanius et al. (2003) investigated university students' sociopolitical attitudes as a function of their career aspirations, exploring the relationship between anti-egalitarianism, choice of course majors, HE or HA, and future career aspirations. In this study hierarchy-enhancing and hierarchy-attenuating careers were ranked by two independent judges. The list of HE careers included, police officers, military persmmel, judges and lawyers, and national security officers. Hierarchy-attenuating careers included social scientists, social workers, and special education teachers (Sidanius et al., ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 15 2003). Reliability of career classifications by the independent judges was deemed to be adequate (rank order r = .84). The findings again indicated that students with significantly higher than average anti-egalitarianism scores were attracted to the HE careers, whereas students with lower than average anti-egalitarianism scores were attracted to the HA careers, (Sidanius et al., 2003). Although this study was limited by the fact that it used only a student sample, its findings support the notion that self-selection is a determining factor between particular dispositions, on the one hand, and career aspirations, on the other (Haley & Sidanius, 2005). Research conducted among participants from non-student populations demonstrated similar findings to those, which used student samples (Haley & Sidanius, 2005). For example, Sidanius et al. (1994), recruited participants from four different populations to determine the effect of employment in, or orientation towards careers in HE or HA organisations on social dominance orientation. Participants were recruited from (1) the City of Los Angeles Police Department (HE) (2) public defenders from the County of Los Angeles Public Defenders' Office (HA) (3) students emolled at UCLA, and ( 4) a cross section of adults selected for jury duty in Los Angeles County (Sidanius et al., 1994). All of the participants were required to complete a lquestimmaire, which consisted of items concerning social status, and social and political attitudes. The questiom1aire was developed in such a mam1er that the participants could not discern that the study was measuring racial and ethnic attitudes, and thus, levels of social dominance orientation (Sidanius et al., 1994). It was hypothesised that police officers (members of an HE orgainsation) would display significantly higher social dominance orientation scores than either the student participants or the jurors. It was also hypothesised that the public defenders (working within an HA organisation) would display significantly lower levels of social dominance orientation than either of these other groups (Sidanius et al., 1994). The results of this study confirmed both hypotheses. Furthetmore, evidence of ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 16 significant differences between HE and HA groups remained when the researchers controlled for demographic factors that differed.across the groups. (Sidanius et al., 1994). It would be reasonable to argue, therefore, that from the findings of the aforementioned studies, individuals who are employed in, or aspire to, careers in HE or HA institutions might hold relatively different attitudes with regards to social dominance orientation. Social dominance orientation is a measure of one's support of anti-egalitarianism, authoritarianism and general support for social group dominance (Sidanius et al., 1994). Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, and Malle, (1994) demonstrated that the social dominance scale, which measures one's level of social dominance orientation, had high reliability (.80) and consistent constmct validity, and was associated with various other dispositional variables such as, prestige-striving, desire for economic rewards and advancement, and political conservatism. Dispositional variables as used in the current Study Webster and Kmglanski (1994) introduced a measure of a dispositional variable using the Need for Closure Survey (NCS). According to Webster and Kmglanski (1994), the need for closure is presented as a dispositional constmct consisting of a number of factors including, the desire for predictability, preference for order and structure, decisiveness, and closedmindedness. A high score on the NCS represents a high need for closure. The need for closure is positively correlated with authoritarianism, which includes constmcts such as rigidity in thinking, conventionalism, and intolerance of individuals or groups who violate conventional norms (Webster & Kmglanski, 1994). It would be reasonable to suggest that individuals who score high on the NCS would, therefore, be attracted to relatively authoritarian HE careers, in organisations such as the criminal justice system or law enforcement, whereas individuals who indicate lower scores on the NCS would favour more HA careers. ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 17 Another instrument, adapted by Burt et el. ( 1994) used for measuring temperance mentality, is the Temperance Mentality Questionnaire (TMQ). The modem temperance mentality is characterised by two fundamental claims, (1) alcohol and other drug use is the source of many societal problems, including, but not limited to, violence, family breakdown, addiction and sexual promiscuity and (2) total abstinence will greatly reduce these problems; and is achievable by temperance solutions such as prohibition, in addition to prevention, education and treatment (Alexander, 1998). According to Burt et al. (1994), temperance mentality appears to exist on a continuum in society, ranging from a moralistic, authoritarian point of view at one end, to a libertarian, permissive inclination at the other. Burt et al. (1994) found a high conelation (r =.58) between temperance mentality and authoritarianism, as measured by scores on the Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) scale, suggesting that support for temperance mentality might be a reflection of broader dispositions relating to punitive and politically conservative attitudes. Again, due to the authoritarian nature of HE organisations, one could reasonably argue that members of such organisations, in general, would indicate higher scores on the TMQ compared to those in HA organisations. Research related to Drug Use Strategies and Dispositions Research has been canied out in the US and Australia (e.g., Grindle & Goddard, 2002; Goddard, Grindle, Miller, Hermann & DiTrapani, 2002; Quick, 2007) to determine the effects of variables such as personal dispositions and education on attitudes towards drug use strategies, including zero tolerance and harm minimisation. These studies are important as they seek to determine how the variables mentioned might influence one's attitudes towards drug policies. It should be noted that the tenn 'harm reduction' as used in the Australian context, refers to a single strategy belonging to a tripartite group of strategies (i.e., demand reduction, supply reduction and harm reduction) that collectively aim to achieve an overall goal of harm ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 18 minimisation. In America, the term harm reduction is used in the same context as harm minimisation in Australia. The term harm minimisation (HM) will be used in this review unless the need for clarity indicates harm reduction should be used. Harm minimisation is the philosophy adopted in the National Drug Strategy in Australia to deal with drug use (MCDS, 2004), and seeks to minimise drug related harm among those individuals who continue to use drugs, but also aims to prevent or reduce the use of drugs by controlling and reducing supply and demand (Ryder et al., 2006). Harm reduction, as defined in Australian drug policy, aims to reduce the harms associated with drug use, both to the individual or the community in general, which may result from individuals who choose to continue to use drugs. Needle and syringe exchange programs are an example of harm reduction strategies, as they endeavour to reduce the risk of blood home viruses being spread among injecting drug users (Ryder et al., 2006). The CIN scheme can also be considered a harm reduction strategy. Supply reduction seeks to control the quantity of drugs available in the community through law enforcement and interdiction; the aim of demand reduction is the prevention or reduction of harmful drug use among current drug users (Ryder et al., 2006), through education programs, and in the case of legal drugs, controls on advertising. Demand reduction strategies also aim to encourage individuals not to begin using drugs (Ryder et al., 2006). A study by Grindle and Goddard (2002) investigated the effects of temperance mentality, need for closure, and level of exposure to HM education on the attitudes of students (n = 116) from an American Midwestem University towards HM strategies. Based on the rationale that Midwestem Americans were mainly conservative and would disapprove of HM, Grindle and Goddard (2002) recruited students from three different units, in which students were exposed to varying degrees ofHM education; for example, Introductory Psychology (no exposure to HM), Abnormal Psychology (two HM lectures), or Drug Policy (several weeks ofHM ATTITUDES TOWARDS CIN SCHEME 19 lectures). The students rated their acceptance of eight HM strategies, in addition to completing the TMQ and the NCS (Grindle & Goddard, 2002). Briefly, the findings from this research study indicated that participants who had more exposure to HM education were more accepting of harm minimisation, although those who scored high on closed-mindedness and temperance mentality (viewing alcohol or other drug use as morally wrong) were less accepting. However, when controlling for the need for closure and temperance mentality, a significant effect for HM education exposure was found, indicating that education on harm minimisation may improve acceptance of HM strategies, and in particular the more controversial strategies such as needle and syringe exchange programs (Grindle & Goddard, 2002). A study by Quick (2007) replicated that of Grindle and Goddard (2002), by investigating the effects of the level of exposure to HM education and dispositional variables on the attitudes towards harm minimisation among Australian undergraduate university students. Dispositions such as the need for closure and temperance mentality were measured using the NCS and the TMQ; the level of exposure to harm minimisation education was determined by the courses in which the participants were enrolled. For example, it was expected that students enrolled in Addiction Studies would have a higher level of exposure to harm minimisation education compared to students enrolled in Psychology (medium exposure), and even more so compared to those enrolled in Sports Science (low exposure). Like Grindle and Goddard (2002), the results from the study indicated that acceptance of HM was significantly affected by exposure to harm minimisation education, F (2, 481) = 109.76,p < .001, that is, the higher the level of exposure to HM education, the greater the acceptance of the philosophy of hmm minimisation. Furthermore, it was found that the levels of exposure to harm minimisation significantly affected TMQ scores, F (2, 481) = 59.32,p < .001, that is, the more exposure individuals had to harm minimisation education, the lower their level of temperance